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Causes of the War
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1982 saw one of the strangest conflicts as one arcane hangover of empire would lead to direct confrontation with a major South American nation. It came out of the blue, but it became a costly and difficult war for both sides to execute. Over a thousand people would die over the ownership of windswept islands of little economic value.
The ownership of the Falkland Islands has been in dispute since at least 1833. See the Falkland Island article for details of the early history. It was always hoped that the chain would provide a useful base for the Royal Navy, which indeed it proved to be in the First and Second World Wars. However in a period of post-war decolonisation, the Argentinians expected and hoped that British interest in the South Atlantic would fade and sovereignty of the islands would be handed over to the Argentinians. The British did indeed seem to wish to shake their responsibility for the islands and the 1,800 settlers (almost all of British stock) who lived there. The strategic necessity for naval bases scattered across the globe was no longer effective and the islands had no dockyard or repair facilities, in fact they did not even have an airport until the 1970s (and that was constructed by the Argentinians). The island economy was tiny and could not even cover the costs of the 40 man Royal Marine garrison that was stationed there.
1965 saw a United Nations resolution which requested that Britain and Argentina negotiate a solution to the sovereignty question with a view to finding a peaceful resolution to the problem. The next 17 years saw tortuous diplomatic negotiations as successive governments and negotiators on both sides sought to seek a compromise that was happy for the Argentines, British and most critically of all the Falkland Islanders. It did not help the Argentinian cause for military governments to seize control of the government and various opponents to the regime were 'disappeared'. Falkland Islanders naturally assumed that they might end up victims of the various Fascistic regimes that dominated Argentine politics since the time of Peron. The British government found it diplomatically difficult to hand over 1,800 people who did not want to leave the protection of their mother country. There were various ideas thrown out, even as late as 1980, the British government was trying to push the idea of a 'leaseback', where the islands would be given to Argentina and then leased back by Britain for a 99 year period. But even this idea was too unpalatable to the Falkland Islanders.
The early 1980s saw a period of deep economic stress in Britain. The newly elected Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher was savagely cutting back spending across the board in Britain. Some of these cuts would send very mixed messages to the Argentinians who sensed that perhaps British opinion was moving away from supporting the intractable Falkland Islanders. The British government announced that it was closing down the Antarctic Research station on the nearby island of South Georgia. Amongst savage cuts in the Royal Navy, it announced that the Antarctic Research vessel HMS Endurance would be withdrawn from service and not be replaced. Perhaps the most baffling withdrawal of support for the Falkland Islanders was the withdrawal of British Citizenship for the islanders. This was actually introduced to prevent a massive influx from Hong Kong before its return to China, but the rules were applied to all the British dependencies and perhaps helped convince the Argentinians that British commitment to the islands was beginning to wear thin.
The British were not the only government to see economic difficulties in the early 1980s. The Argentinian military government (the Junta) had been forced to introduce its own savage cuts across the board in Argentina. It was these cuts to services and benefits that saw Argentinians take to the streets early in 1982. These demonstrations began to get out of hand, and the Junta sensed that it was losing popularity and even the ability to impose law and order. It was thought that they might be able to restore some of their credibility by playing to their institutional strength and launching an invasion of what they referred to as the 'Malvinas'.
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The Argentine Invasion
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The trigger that would lead to the full scale invasion of the Falkland Islands was actually a tragi-comic affair over the nearby island of South Georgia. An Argentinian scrap merchant dealer had won a contract to clear up an old whaling station. This dealer used a ship provided by the Argentine navy and accompanied by an Argentine naval officer. Once they had reached the island, they hoisted an Argentinian flag. British scientists reported this fact to the authorities in Port Stanley. They sent an urgent request for the Argentinians to take down the flag and to leave the island. The British also decided to send two dozen Royal Marines on HMS Endurance from the Falkland Islands to ensure that their instructions had been observed. Furthermore, their were rumours that the British had ordered nuclear submarines to the South Atlantic. The British were indeed contemplating this but it would be a while before they arrived. This made timing a severe issue for the Argentine Navy. If it was going to launch an invasion, it had to be done whilst the islands were relatively undefended. HMS Endurance was a research vessel with a couple of 20mm cannons - a submarine would be a far more severe threat to an invasion force. With demonstrations breaking out on the streets of Argentina, the military Junta took the gamble to launch an invasion - before any submarine might arrive in the area. They agreed to launch the invasion at a meeting on the 26th of March. Leave was cancelled as soldiers and sailors were told to report to various depots and ports. The invasion was on.
Meanwhile, back in Britain, Margaret Thatcher's government was thought that it was still dealing with ownership of South Georgia and not the Falkland Islands in general. Fortunately, the Royal Navy was placed on standby and preparations were at least being considered for a Task Force if things escalated. The British were fortunate that a large part of their fleet was already out at sea in the Atlantic Ocean taking part in an exercise.
Intelligence reports started to concern the British more and more. By April 1st, they sent a message to Governor Hunt that an Argentinian invasion force may well be despatched to the islands. Governor Hunt was fortunate in that he had nearly twice as many Royal Marines as he would normally have. It just happened to be the period of transition between garrisons. The old garrison had not yet left and the new one had already arrived. Of course, some soldiers had been despatched to South Georgia under Lieutenant Keith Mills. But despite this piece of fortune, it was still clearly a tiny force against a fully fledged invasion force. However, the governor felt that it was important to resist invasion in order to demonstrate British sovereignty and determination to defend the islands.
The few Royal Marines were scattered around Port Stanley, the airport and local beaches to dispute any invasion. The Argentine Task Force arrived early on the morning of April 2nd. Argentine Commandoes were landed at Mullet Creek at 4:30am and headed straight for government house. The Falkland Island radio station broadcasted events live as they unfolded. The Royal Marines defended government house for over two hours. Several Argentinians were killed and reinforcements were called in. Governor Hunt determined that their point had been made and wished to avoid any further casualties. He ordered the Marines to stand down from any further resistance. All but six did. Six were chosen to hightail it to the mountains to provide reconnaissance and further resistance. The remaining prisoners were made to lie down in pictures that were beamed around the world. This humiliation for the British would make it more difficult for them to back down and not react to the naked aggression.
Despite news of the British surrender on the Falkland Islands, the far smaller Royal Marine contingent on South Georgia put up an even more determined resistance to the Argentine force approaching that island. Using some ingenuity, the Royal Marines would deploy their Anti-Tank rocket against an approaching Argentinian corvette and holing it. A hail of bullets from every gun in their possession would force the approaching helicopters to turn back. A shortage of ammunition and the arrival of more and more Argentinian soldiers would ultimately seal the fate of the Royal Marines and feeling that they had resisted as much as anyone could have, they laid down their arms and surrendered.
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Assembling the Task Force
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If anything, the Argentines probably invaded the islands too early. It may have been politically imperative for them to invade, but it was not great timing from a strategic point of view. Their original plans were for an invasion in October, after the harsh winter. As it was they were to invade in April, just before the bad weather set in. As has already been mentioned, the timing for the British was fortuitous due to the fleet already being at sea. It would not take much time for them to be despatched further south if called upon. If the Argentinians had waited a little longer, they might not have had to have faced the British Aircraft Carriers. Those savage defence cuts had seen one carrier being sold to the Australians and the other carrier being prepared to be mothballed. As it was, both could now be rushed back into emergency service.
Considering the distances involved, and various communication difficulties, it was surprising that the British responded as quickly as they did. Although it was not up to the Royal Navy to decide the response to British sovereignty over the islands, they were keen to demonstrate that their service did still have a role to play on the modern battlefield and had taken the initiative in preparing for the eventuality of a Task Force. As it was, it was clear that the existing despatched submarines had not deterred the Argentinians from invading - in fact the first of those did not arrive in the theatre until April 12th. It was further argued that the despatch of a Task Force would lead to diplomatic leverage and show the Argentinians that the British did indeed mean business. Furthermore, it was clear that the Conservative government had to be seen to do something. The political imperative to respond was just too great to resist. The fleet was ordered to rendezvous at Ascension Island where the RAF could airlift supplies, weapons and equipment ready for the possibility of open conflict. Meanwhile the 3rd Commando brigade was ordered to assemble the Royal Marines and Paras that were to make up the unit. At this stage it was just a contingency, but it was clear that warfare was a very real possibility.
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The Diplomatic Battlefield
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Diplomacy was given a chance as the Task Force sailed, the battlefield was the United Nations building in New York as both sides sought to gain international backing for their actions and reactions. The British diplomatic machine efficiently swung into action. Sir Anthony Parsons, the British UN Ambassador, managed to use all of his diplomatic leverage to force through a emergency vote condemning the Argentine action and demanding an 'Immediate withdrawal' from the islands. This was United Nations Resolution 502 and gave formidable backing for the British position. All of this was achieved in just 48 hours which is lightening speed when it comes to the field of diplomacy.
The British were able to move equally swiftly in the EEC and got a comprehensive set of sanctions against the aggressor nation. Perhaps most surprising of all, was the way that the British even got diplomatic support from the Organisation of American States where it was assumed the Argentinians would get the most sympathetic hearing. Even here, the Argentinians were asked to honour UN Resolution 502 and to withdraw. It was clear that the Junta had been out manouevered on just about every diplomatic front. The only exception was the United States.
The US was dismayed to find that two of its allies were at each others' throats. There was a real split between the Atlantacists who wished to support a key NATO member and the Latin Americanists who were keen to support Anti-Communist regimes in America's backyard. The result of this split was for the Secretary of State General Haig to embark on shuttle diplomacy to try and bring the two sides back from the brink. He embarked on an arduous inter-continental schedule as he pleaded with one side and then the other. His first stop was the UK, where he was firmly impressed by the resolve of Margaret Thatcher's preparedness to go to war over this issue of principle. On his arrival, he attempted to convince General Galtieri of the determination of the British, the Argentinian was convinced that it was all just a front and that they would back down. He returned to the UK and then Argentina once more but to no avail. He found it difficult negotiating with the military Junta who would drag their feet and change their diplomatic stance far too frequently. In the end, he issued them an ultimatum - Argentina must honour UN Resolution 502 or the USA would support the UK. The Argentine Naval Admiral Anaya said to Haig's face "You are lying!". Haig duly informed Reagan to support Britain. The diplomatic battle had been well and truly won - There were now no diplomatic hurdles in the place of any British military retaliation. But they now had to fight the real war.
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Ascension Island
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Ascension Island was to be the assembly point for the Task Force. The tiny volcanic island exploded into a hive of activity. Ships ditched their training torpedoes and blank rounds and armed themselves fully. Food, medical supplies and Equipment was moved between ships. Last minute personnel were flown to and from their ships. The RAF worked around the clock to ensure that all equipment that was necessary was made available. The warships needed to be ready to go - the politicians had received the diplomatic backing, but were conscious that it could be lost equally quickly. They wanted to keep the momentum and pressure going. Within days, April 12th, a small flotilla of ships was despatched to head straight to South Georgia. HMS Plymouth, HMS Antrim and the tanker Tidespring carried elements of the SAS, SBS and a company of 42 Royal Marine Commandoes.
The main bulk of the Task Force needed a little longer to prepare, but even these were despatched with remarkable speed. They were despatched on April 18th. The main Task Force headed South with the objective of clearing the seas around the Falkland Islands of Argentinian naval and air power. A 200 mile exclusion zone was announced. There were already submarines in the area to gather information about Argentinian ship movements and to stalk likely prey.
The Commando Brigade was to be the last flotilla to leave Ascension Island. They had needed extra time to commandeer various civilian ships to help the Navy with its logistic and troop movements. These ships had required more time to be fitted out with sandbags and machine guns to give them at least some opportunity to defend themselves. The Passenger liner Uganda was converted into a hospital ship. The Canberra was converted into a troop ship complete with assault courses, helicopter pads and running tracks around the deck. The Commandoes were given their last opportunity to practice using the Landing Craft for the expected amphibious assault. They were given orders to await developments in the South Atlantic and particularly to wait until the main Task Force had achieved air and naval superiority.
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The Attack on South Georgia
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The small flotilla travelled at remarkable speed in horrendous weather conditions to reach the island of South Georgia on April 21st. They rendezvoused with HMS Endurance. The submarine HMS Conqueror was already in the area reporting Argentine naval and air movements. She reported that there appeared to be no Argentine surface ships in the area and that it was safe for the flotilla to approach the island and commence operations.
In horrific flying conditions, a Wessex helicopter flew an SAS squadron onto the Fortuna Glacier. They successfully landed, but the weather conditions did not let up in the slightest. Even the SAS had to concede defeat to the 100mph winds and subzero temperatures. They requested to be picked up the following day. A helicopter was despatched but the weather caused the engine to freeze and it crashed as it came in to land. Fortunately the pilot and crew survived. A second helicopter was sent to retrieve the crew and the squadron but it too suffered from a whiteout and so also fell back down to earth. An hour later, a third and final helicopter was despatched. In a feat of miraculous aviational skills, the pilot landed the helicopter and picked up all the personnel from the previous helicopters and the original SAS team. A disaster had been averted by the narrowest of margins.
The following day, they tried a different tack for getting to the island. The SBS attempted to approach the island by five inflatable boats. Again, the harsh weather conditions affected the engines and two of the boats suffered complete failure. One boat drifted for hours, the other boat had seemed to be lost completely and was considered lost. By a miracle, they had managed to paddle ashore at the very Southern tip of the island - had they not done so, the next stop was Antarctica! They were later picked up by helicopter. Even the three boats that got ashore did not prosper much more. Ice shards cut their inflatables to ribbons and they found the terrain in front of them impassable. They had to be retrieved by helicopter.
Two days later saw a new threat to the flotilla. An Argentine submarine had been picked up on radar by a Wessex helicopter. Three helicopters were quickly despatched to remove this threat. They came across the submarine as it was leaving Cumberland Bay, it had been delivering reinforcements to the island garrison. The helicopters dropped depth charges, launched missiles, unleashed torpedoes and fired machine guns. The submarine took a battering but remarkably managed to stay afloat. It limped back into port where the crew quickly abandoned her.
There was now a force of 140 Argentinians on the island, but it was thought that their morale was probably suffering terribly by this time. The British decided to maintain the initiative by launching an attack. This was despite the fact that the bulk of the Marines in the force was over 200 miles away. It was HMS Antrim that was closest to the island at that time and she could only muster a force of 75 SAS, SBS and Marines. However, it was felt that these might yet be able to carry an attack. The attack was not unsupported though, the helicopters would be used as spotters to call in a devastating bombardment from the ship's guns. The other helicopters then ferried the troops to the outskirts of the settlement's defences. They began to open fire when they noticed that the defenders had already had enough and were flying white flags and sheets from the windows of the buildings. South Georgia, the scene of the start of the entire fiasco, was to fall to the British relatively painlessly - in fact, despite the mechanical and weather problems, not a single British soldier or sailor had died in the retaking of this remote island.
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The Naval War
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By the time South Georgia had been retaken, the Task Force was underway to the Falklands itself. A 200 mile Exclusion was announced around the islands. Any ships or planes found to be in this area were regarded as 'fair game' by the British. Admiral Woodward was intent on winning sea and air superiority in order to allow the Amphibious Assault force to be able to land their troops with minimal disruption. The British felt confident of their naval superiority, but could the Argentinians be relied upon to commit their naval and air forces.
May 1st saw the British try to provoke some kind of response. With some remarkable long range flying and major refuelling efforts, a Vulcan bomber dropped 21 1,000lb bombs in and around the airport at Port Stanley. This attack was then followed up by a dozen Harriers swooping in to hit radar and anti-aircraft defences at Port Stanley and Goose Green. Then, three ships were brought in close enough to bombard the coastline and Argentinian positions. It was at this point that the Argentinians finally took the bait. Four Mirage IIIs came swooping in to attack these British ships. However, the other flight of Harriers was waiting to intercept any Air assets. The Mirage IIIs did get to drop their bombs with minimal damage, but as they rose after the attack, the Harriers swooped down on them. On paper, the Mirages were far faster than the Harriers, but the manoueverability, pilot skill and the height advantage was more than enough to compensate. Two Mirages were shot down immediately, a third was actually shot down by the Argentinians own defences. A fourth plane, a Canberra, was shot down en route to the combat zone. First blood had gone to the Royal Navy.
The following day saw one of the most controversial incidents of the war. The Argentinian's largest Battleship, the Belgrano, was spotted by HMS Conqueror. It was being accompanied by two exocet armed destroyers. This small Task Force lay some 40 miles outside of the Exclusion Zone, but it appeared that it could well pose a major threat to the Task Force. After the Argentinian Aircraft Carrier, the Belgrano represented the next most important target for Admiral Woodward in his battle for supremacy of the seas. The Captain of HMS Conqueror asked for further instructions. The Royal Navy deferred to the politicians, but making it clear that they would like this threat removed. Margaret Thatcher and her war cabinet agreed. At 3pm, a pattern of Mark 8 torpedoes was launched at the Belgrano. The ship was still 35 miles away from the exclusion zone. Remarkably, the two escort vessels left the battleship to its own fate. Possibly they tried to pursue Conqueror, or perhaps they were concerned that they would be the next targets. This fact, combined with poor weather and ice cold waters to mean that some 368 sailors would die. This was a crushing blow for the Argentine Navy, but the sinking did cost Britain some international sympathy. The death of so many people outside the exclusion zone dramatically raised the stakes. Strategically, it actually achieved the primary goal of removing the Argentinian surface fleet from the war zone. The Argentinian admirals would not dare lose any more of their precious fleet. They were to spend the remainder of the war in their ports. This would also allow the British submarines to redeploy. They would no longer be required to shadow Argentinian ships. Instead, they lay off the coast of the Argentinian Airbases and relay important information about waves of Argentinian attack formations leaving and returning to base.
Although the naval threat had effectively been removed, this did not end the threat to the Task Force. There was still the Argentinian Air Force and a sizeable Naval Air Arm. And there were still Argentinian submarines to be concerned about. It was still not safe to bring the Amphibious Assault force to the islands. Events over the next couple of days would confirm that the Argentinians had plenty of fight in them yet.
May 4th saw the first British Harrier to be shot down over Goose Green by Anti-aircraft fire. This was a blow, but not a totally unexpected one. However the attack on the fleet later that same day was to be far more shocking to the British. HMS Sheffield was to be struck by an exocet missile. HMS Sheffield was thought to be one of the more modern battleships in the Royal Navy and was supposed to be responsible for dealing with the threat of air and missile attacks. And yet, the speed with which it was attacked and sunk surprised everyone. There is speculation that the explosives in the ship did not actually go off, but the speed that the missile was travelling and the fuel it was carrying was enough to cause severe damage on the ship. Furthermore, the plastic cabling, deep fat fryers, and other flammable equipment on board in order to make life easier for the crew all compounded to turn the ship into a burning hulk. This was to be the first Royal Naval ship to be sunk in battle since the Second World War.
Two days later saw another setback for the British as two of its precious Harriers collided with one another in poor weather. The British had too few of these aircraft to lose in such a wasteful manner.
The next couple of days saw the Royal Navy reassert itself after the troubling few days. Sea Dart and Sea Wolf would prove that they could shoot down planes if they were picked up at the right height and with enough warning. In fact, it was found to be useful to join a Sea Dart armed ship with a Sea Wolf armed one as they compensated for the other's weaknesses. Sea Dart was good at medium and high height, Sea Wolf was good at low height. However, Sea Wolf did have the annoying habit of being 'confused' if there were too many targets coming at it at the same time. HMS Brilliant was to find this out on May 10th, as it picketed alongside HMS Glasgow. Glasgow was hit by bombs, fortunately, they did not detonate. They were lucky to survive.
Some Argentinian coastal defence vessels and trawlers that were lying in Falkland waters were attacked and put out of action. HMS Alacrity destroyed the 3,900 tone Islas de los Estados with a single shot on May 10th. It must have hit a fuel line of some kind.
By now, it was clear that the British could not fully achieve its goal of definitively drawing out and defeating the Argentine Naval and Air Forces. They simply would not commit themselves fully. The British had to make the unenviable decision to launch an Amphibious Assault without Air and Naval superiority. The Amphibious Assault vessels were ordered to leave Ascension Island for the Falklands, but Air defence became a priority as they approached the war zone.
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San Carlos Bay
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After much agonising, the British decided that to land on the West Coast of the Eastern island was the best option. It would allow them the time to establish a beachhead away from the main Argentine formations at Port Stanley. San Carlos seemed to be deep enough allow the Assault ships to get close enough and yet still have beaches that their landing craft could dispense their cargoes and soldiers upon. On May 21st the British launched their invasion. They had achieved strategic surprise, there were no Argentines waiting to repel them - although sightings of the British were radioed back to the Argentine generals. The first wave of British soldiers got ashore safely and secured the bridgehead. However, by 10am, the Argentine Air Force began its response and it was a furious one. Realising that there was a high density of targets in a tight formation, the Argentine Air Force descended upon it in full fury. Wave after wave of Argentine planes screamed down the valleys and bays and dropped their ordinance and whatever was in their sights. The Royal Navy found that it was having to fight off a determined and highly skilled enemy. The planes came in low and fast - possibly too low as many of the bombs they had dropped failed to go off even when they hit their target. It was going to take a while to set up the land based Rapier Anti-Aircraft systems, until that was done, the Royal Navy had to defend itself. It was found that the humble machine gun was still an invaluable tool on the modern battlefield. The volume of lead and tracers unnerved many of the pilots and frequently made them drop their bombs too early just to get out of the danger zone.
Fortunately for the British, the pilots were aiming for the escort ships rather than the troop carriers. This was not much comfort for those Royal Naval sailors who were finding themselves to be the targets, but it would at least allow the Royal Marines and Paratroopers of the Commando Brigade to get ashore relatively unmolested. The Harriers were called upon to provide air cover and were found to be proficient in fighting against the much faster Argentine planes. The acceleration of the Harriers more than made up for the deficiency in its top speed. However, there were just not enough Harriers to meed the demand required. Also, the Harriers had little time to spend over the landing zone. The British wanted to ensure that their Carriers were not in danger of being hit by Exocet missiles and so were a long way out to sea. This meant that the Harriers had to travel to and from the landing zone and so did not have much time to keep guard over it.
Bombs rained down on the Piquet ships of the Royal Navy. HMS Argonaut was on the receiving end of many of these bombs. It was crippled but still afloat. Many of its sailors had to be evacuated to nearby ships. However, it was HMS Ardent that was to be the first major casualty of the landing force as it was hit by 1,000 pound bombs. HMS Yarmouth came to her aid and was at least able to get the majority of the crew to safety. HMS Antelope would be yet another casualty. Yet again, it was hit by a series of bombs, not all of which exploded. Bomb disposal officers were sent to the ship but they caused a catastrophic explosion that would see the ship ripped apart.
There was to be one more major setback for the British when another Exocet missile hit the ÔAtlantic ConveyorÕ. This was a huge merchant cargo ship which was bringing important supplies and the large Chinook helicopters for the British forces to help them cross the Falklands. It was to prove a costly casualty and meant that the British were going to have to cross the islands by foot.
Despite all these setbacks, the Commando Brigade moved ashore and diligently set about preparing for their first encounters. They set up Rapier missiles on the hillsides and set up a field hospital and supply depots. They were spectators of the aerial assault on the ships in the bay below them, but few of the Argentine planes directed their firepower at the troops on the land. The landings were a success.
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Moving Inland
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The Parachute Regiment was the first British unit to engage the Argentinian army at Goose Green. Poor intelligence meant that the Paras were to face a far larger enemy than they were expecting. Instead of outnumbering the enemy they were attacking, they were outnumbered 4 to 1 themselves. However, they persevered and captured the settlement but with heavy losses.
Meanwhile the Royal Marines had to walk across the country as winter was setting in. In sub zero temperatures they moved towards a ring of hills surrounding Port Stanley. They were joined by more British forces and moved to capture the peaks. These were some of the fiercest battles of the war. However, it was discovered that the Argentinians were suffering from the terrible weather conditions and a poor supply of food and ammunition. Often, their officers were back in the comfort of Port Stanley. They were unnerved by the night time fighting and the heavy bombardments from the ships and British artillery. It was not long before they were retreating headlong to Port Stanley with the British in control of the mountains. The Argentinians would sue for peace.
Their conscript army had been no match for the professional British soldiers. The Argentinian Air Force had inflicted terrible losses on the British, but they had suffered massively themselves. If they thought that this was going to be a quick and popular war, they would be disappointed. Within a month, the Argentine Junta would itself be pushed from power. Meanwhile, Margaret ThatcherÕs government would receive an incredible boost to its popularity. The Falkland Factor would play a major part in her winning the next two elections and dominating British politics throughout the 1980s.
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